# Lesson 10: One-Way ANOVA

Lesson 10: One-Way ANOVA

## Objectives

Upon successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain why it is not appropriate to conduct multiple independent t tests to compare the means of more than two independent groups
• Use Minitab to construct a probability plot for an F distribution
• Use Minitab to perform a one-way ANOVA with Tukey's pairwise comparisons
• Interpret the results of a one-way ANOVA
• Interpret the results of Tukey's pairwise comparisons

In previous lessons you learned how to compare the means of two independent groups. In this lesson, we will learn how to compare the means of more than two independent groups. This procedure is known as a one-way analysis of variance, or more often as a "one-way ANOVA."

#### Why not multiple independent t-tests?

A frequently asked question is, "why not just perform multiple two independent samples $t$ tests?" If you were to perform multiple independent $t$ tests instead of a one-way ANOVA you would need to perform more tests. For $k$ independent groups there are $\frac{k(k-1)}{2}$ possible pairs. If you had 5 independent groups, that would equal $\frac{5(5-1)}{2}=10$ independent t tests! And, those 10 independent t tests would not give you information about the independent variable overall. Most importantly, multiple $t$ tests would lead to a greater chance of making a Type I error. By using an ANOVA, you avoid inflating $\alpha$ and you avoid increasing the likelihood of a Type I error.

# 10.1 - Introduction to the F Distribution

10.1 - Introduction to the F Distribution

One-way ANOVAs, along with a number of other statistical tests, use the F distribution. Earlier in this course you learned about the $z$ and $t$ distributions. You computed $z$ and $t$ test statistics and used those values to look up p-values using statistical software. Similarly, in this lesson you are going to compute F test statistics. The F test statistic can be used to determine the p-value for a one-way ANOVA.

The video below gives a brief introduction to the F distribution and walks you through two examples of using Minitab Express to find the p-values for given F test statistics. The steps for creating a distribution plot to find the area under the F distribution are the same as the steps for finding the area under the $z$ or $t$ distribution. For the F distribution we will always be looking for a right-tailed probability. Later in this lesson we will see that this area is the p-value.

The F distribution has two different degrees of freedom: between groups and within groups. Minitab Express will call these the numerator and denominator degrees of freedom, respectively. Within groups is also referred to as error.

Between Groups (Numerator) Degrees of Freedom

$df_{between}=k-1$

$k$ = number of groups

Within Groups (Denominator, Error) Degrees of Freedom

$df_{within}=n-k$

$n$ = total sample size with all groups combined

$k$ = number of groups

## MinitabExpress – Creating an F Distribution

Scenario: An F test statistic of 2.57 is computed with 3 and 246 degrees of freedom. What is the p-value for this test?

We can create a distribution plot. Our distribution is the F distribution. The numerator df ($df_1$) is 3 and the denominator df ($df_2$) is 246. We want to shade the area in the right tail. Our “X Value” is 2.57.

1. On a PC: STATISTICS > Distribution Plot > Display Probability
On a Mac: Statistics > Probability Distributions > Distribution Plot > Display Probability
2. Change the Distribution to F
3. Fill in the Numerator degrees of freedom with 3 and the Denominator degrees of freedom with 246
4. Select A specified x value
5. Use the default Right tail
6. For the X value enter 2.57

The area beyond an F-value of 2.57 with 3 and 246 degrees of freedom is 0.05487. The p-value for this F test is 0.05487.

Note: When you conduct an ANOVA in Minitab Express, the software will compute this p-value for you.

Below is an interactive video designed to help you review the F distribution and practice using Minitab Express and StatKey to look up p-values.

# 10.2 - Hypothesis Testing

10.2 - Hypothesis Testing

A one-way ANOVA is used to compare the means of more than two independent groups. A one-way ANOVA comparing just two groups will give you the same results at the independent $t$ test that you conducted in Lesson 8. We will use the five step hypothesis testing procedure again in this lesson.

1. Check assumptions and write hypotheses

The assumptions for a one-way ANOVA are:

1. Samples are independent
2. The response variable is approximately normally distributed or all sample sizes are at least 30
3. The population variances are equal across responses for the group levels (if the largest sample standard deviation divided by the smallest sample standard deviation is not greater than two, then assume that the population variances are equal)

Given that you are comparing $k$ independent groups, the null and alternative hypotheses are:

$H_{0}: \mu_1 = \mu_2 = \cdots = \mu_k$
$H_{a}:$ Not all $\mu_\cdot$ are equal

In other words, the null hypothesis is that at all of the groups' population means are equal. The alternative is that they are not all equal; there are at least two population means that are not equal to one another.

2. Calculate the test statistic

The one-way ANOVA uses an F test statistic. Hand calculations for ANOVAs require many steps. In this class, you will be working primarily with Minitab Express outputs.

Conceptually, the F statistic is a ratio: $F=\frac{Between\;groups\;variability}{Within\;groups\;variability}$. Numerically this translates to $F=\frac{MS_{Between}}{MS_{Within}}$. In other words how much do individuals in different groups vary from one another over how much to individuals within groups vary from one another.

Statistical software will compute the F ratio for you and produce what is known as an ANOVA source table. The ANOVA source table will give you information about the variability between groups and within groups. The table below gives you all of the formulas, but you will not be responsible for performing these calculations by hand. Minitab Express will do all of these calculations for you and provide you with the full ANOVA source table.

Source SS df MS F p
Between Groups (Factor) $\sum_{k}n_k(\overline{x}_k-\overline{x}_\cdot)^2$ $k-1$ $\dfrac{SS_{Between}}{df_{Between}}$ $\dfrac{MS_{Between}}{MS_{Within}}$ Area to the right of Fk-1, n-k
Within Groups (Error) $\sum_k \sum_i(x_{ik}-\overline{x}_k)^2$ $n-k$ $\dfrac{SS_{Within}}{df_{Within}}$
Total $\sum_k \sum_i(x_{ik}-\overline{x}_\cdot)^2$ $n-1$
 $k$ Number of groups $n$ Total sample size (all groups combined) $n_k$ Sample size of group $k$ $\overline{x}_k$ Sample mean of group $k$ $\overline{x}_\cdot$ Grand mean (i.e., mean for all groups combined) SS Sum of squares MS Mean square df Degrees of freedom F F-ratio (the test statistic)

Some of the terms in the table above should look familiar, while others will be new to you. The sum of squares that appears in the ANOVA source table is similar to the sum of squares that you computed in Lesson 2 when computing variance and standard deviation. Recall, the sum of squares is the squared difference between each score and the mean. Here, there are three different sum of squares each measuring a different type of variability.

The ANOVA source table also has three different degrees of freedom: $df_{between}$, $df_{within}$, and $df_{total}$. If you were to look up an F value using statistical software you would need to know two of these degrees of freedom: $df_1 = df_{between}$ and $df_2=df_{within}$.

3. Determine the p-value

When performing a one-way ANOVA using statistical software, you will be given the p-value in the ANOVA source table. If performing a one-way ANOVA by hand, you would use the F distribution. Similar to the t distribution, the F distribution varies depending on degrees of freedom.

4. Make a decision

If $p \leq \alpha$ reject the null hypothesis. If $p>\alpha$ fail to reject the null hypothesis.

5. State a "real world" conclusion.

Based on your decision in Step 4, write a conclusion in terms of the original research question.

# 10.3 - Pairwise Comparisons

10.3 - Pairwise Comparisons

While the results of a one-way ANOVA will tell you if there is what is known as a main effect of the explanatory variable, the initial results will not tell you which groups are different from one another. In order to determine which groups are different from one another, a post-hoc test is needed. Post-hoc tests are conducted after a one-way ANOVA to determine which groups differ from one another. There are many different post-hoc analyses that could be performed following a one-way ANOVA. Here, we will learn about one of the most common tests known as Tukey's Honestly Significant Differences (HSD) Test.

Most statistical software, including Minitab Express, will compute Tukey's pairwise comparisons for you. This specific post-hoc test makes all possible pairwise comparisons. In this class we will be relying on statistical software to perform these analyses, if you are interested in seeing how the calculations are performed, this information is contained in the notes for STAT 502: Analysis of Variance and Design of Experiments. This analysis takes into account the fact that multiple tests are being performed and makes the necessary adjustments to ensure that Type I error is not inflated.

In the examples later in this lesson you will see a number of Tukey post-hoc tests. Next, you will also learn how to obtain these results using Minitab Express.

For each pairwise comparison, $H_0: \mu_i - \mu_j=0$ and $H_a: \mu_i - \mu_j \ne 0$.

# 10.4 - Minitab Express: One-Way ANOVA

10.4 - Minitab Express: One-Way ANOVA

In one research study, 20 young pigs are assigned at random among 4 experimental groups. Each group is fed a different diet. (This design is a completely randomized design.) The data are the pigs' weights in kg after being raised on these diets for 10 months. We wish to ask whether mean pig weights are the same for all 4 diets.

• $H_0: \mu_1 = \mu_2 = \mu_3 = \mu_4$
• $H_a:$ Not all $\mu$ are equal
Data from study of pigs weights
Feed_1 Feed_2 Feed_3 Feed_4
60.8 68.3 102.6 87.9
57.1 67.7 102.2 84.7
65.0 74.0 100.5 83.2
58.7 66.3 97.5 85.8
61.8 69.9 98.9 90.3

Contained in the Minitab Express file:

Note that in this file the data were entered so that each group is in its own column. In other words the responses are in a separate column for each factor level. In later examples you will see that Minitab Express will also conduct a one-way ANOVA if the responses are all in one column with the factor codes in another column.

## MinitabExpress – One-Way ANOVA

To perform an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test in Minitab Express:

1. Open the ANOVA_ex.MTW data set.
2. From the menu bar, select Statistics ANOVA One-Way ANOVA.
3. Click the drop-down menu and select "Responses are in a separate column for each factor level".
4. Double-click on the variables Feed_1Feed_2Feed_3, and Feed_4 to insert them into the "Responses" box.
5. Click the comparisons tab and check the box next to "Tukey (family error rate)".
6. Click OK.

The result should be the following output:

Null hypothesis All means are equal At least one mean is different $\alpha=0.05$

Equal variances were assumed for the analysis

Factor Information
Factor Levels Values
Factor 4 Feed_1, Feed_2, Feed_3, Feed_4
Analysis of Variance
Factor 3 4703.188 1567.72933 206.72 <0.0001
Error 16 121.340 7.58375
Total 19 4824.528
Model Summary
2.75386093 97.48% 97.01% 96.07%
Means
Factor N Mean StDev 95% CI
Feed_1 5 60.680 3.028 (58.069, 63.291)
Feed_2 5 69.240 2.958 (66.629, 71.851)
Feed_3 5 100.3400 2.1640 (97.7292, 102.9508)
Feed_4 5 86.380 2.782 (83.769, 88.991)

Pooled StDev = 2.75386093

Grouping Information Using the Tukey Method and 95% Confidence
Factor N Mean Grouping
Feed_3 5 100.34 A
Feed_4 5 86.38   B
Feed_2 5 69.24     C
Feed_1 5 60.68       D

Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.

Tukey Simultaneous Tests for Differences of Means
Difference of Levels Difference of Means SE of Difference 95% CI T-Value Adjusted P-Value
Feed_2-Feed_1 8.560 1.742 (3.572, 13.548) 4.91 0.0008
Feed_3-Feed_1 39.660 1.742 (34.672, 44.648) 22.77 <0.0001
Feed_4-Feed_1 25.700 1.742 (20.712, 30.688) 14.76 <0.0001
Feed_3-Feed_2 31.100 1.742 (26.112, 36.088) 17.86 <0.0001
Feed_4-Feed_2 17.140 1.742 (12.152, 22.128) 9.84 <0.0001
Feed_4-Feed_3 -13.960 1.742 (-18.948,-8.972) -9.02 <0.0001

Individual confidence level = 98.87%

Video Walkthrough

Select your operating system below to see a step-by-step guide for this example.

# 10.5 - Video Example: SAT-Math Scores by Award Preference

10.5 - Video Example: SAT-Math Scores by Award Preference

The video below walks through an example of obtaining and interpreting all of the output provided by Minitab Express when a one-way ANOVA with Tukey pairwise comparisons is preformed.

The example in this video uses the StudentSurvey.MTW dataset provided by the Lock5 textbook. In this example we are comparing the SAT scores of students who said that they would prefer to win an Academy Award, a Nobel Prize, or an Olympic gold medal.

# 10.6 - Video Example: Exam Grade by Professor

10.6 - Video Example: Exam Grade by Professor

This example uses the following dataset:

Scenario

Three professors were each teaching one section of a course. They all gave the same final exam and they want to know if there are any differences between their sections’ scores.

Step 1: Write Hypotheses

$H_0:\mu_1=\mu_2=\mu_3$

$H_a: Not\;all\;\mu\;are\;equal$

Means
Instructor N Mean StDev 95% CI
Dr. Al 60 68.367 17.719 (63.977, 72.756)
Dr. Oh 87 71.448 16.702 (67.803, 75.094)
Dr. Pa 98 67.939 17.465 (64.504, 71.373)

Pooled StDev = 17.2609

The standard deviations for all three classes are all similar.

Step 2: Compute Test Statistic

Using Minitab Express for Mac or PC: Statistics > ANOVA > One-Way ANOVA

The result is the following ANOVA source table:

Analysis of Variance
Instructor 2 635.3 317.671 1.07 0.3459
Error 242 72101.1 297.938
Total 244 72736.4

F (2, 242) = 1.07

Step 3: Find p-Value

From our ANOVA source table, p = .3459

Step 4: Make Decision

Because $p > \alpha$, we fail to reject the null hypothesis.

Step 5: State Conclusion

There is NOT evidence that the mean scores from the three different professors’ sections are different.

There is some debate as to whether pairwise comparisons are appropriate when the overall one-way ANOVA is not statistically significant. Some argue that if the overall ANOVA is not significant then pairwise comparisons are not necessary. Others argue that if the pairwise comparisons were planned before the ANOVA was conducted (i.e., "a priori") then they are appropriate.

The results of our Tukey pairwise comparisons were as follows:

Grouping Information Using the Tukey Method and 95% Confidence
Instructor N Mean Grouping
Dr. Oh 87 71.448 A
Dr. Al 60 68.367 A
Dr. Pa 98 67.939 A

Means that do not share a letter are significantly different.

Tukey Simultaneous Tests for Differences of Means
Difference of Levels Difference of Means SE of Difference 95% CI T-Value Adjusted P-Value
Dr. Oh-Dr. Al 3.082 2.897 (-3.698, 9.861) 1.06 0.5366
Dr. Pa-Dr. Al -0.428 2.829 (-7.050, 6.195) -0.15 0.9875
Dr. Pa-Dr. Oh -3.510 2.543 (-9.460, 2.441) -1.38 0.3512

Individual confidence level = 97.99%

Looking at the first table, all three instructors are in group A. Means that share a less are not significantly different from one another (i.e., they are in the same group). Because all three instructors share the letter A, there are no significantly different pairs of instructors.

We could also look at the second table which gives us the t test statistic and adjusted p-value for each possible pairwise comparison. This p-value is adjusted to take into account that multiple tests are being conducted. You can compare these p-values to the standard alpha level of .05.  All p-value are greater than .05, therefore no pairs are significantly different from one another.

# 10.7 - Lesson 10 Summary

10.7 - Lesson 10 Summary

## Objectives

Upon successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain why it is not appropriate to conduct multiple independent t tests to compare the means of more than two independent groups
• Use Minitab to construct a probability plot for an F distribution
• Use Minitab to perform a one-way ANOVA with Tukey's pairwise comparisons
• Interpret the results of a one-way ANOVA
• Interpret the results of Tukey's pairwise comparisons

In this lesson you learned how to compare the means of three or more groups using a one-way ANOVA. A one-way ANOVA is used instead of multiple independent $t$ tests in order to avoid increasing the likelihood of committing a Type I error.

A one-way ANOVA provides information about the explanatory variable overall, but not about differences between the different levels of that variable. In order to compare the different pairs we need to conduct a post-hoc analysis such as Tukey's HSD test.